Queen Elizabeth Walks A Tightrope[1]
            Queen Elizabeth I ruled in a turbulent, violent time respecting matters of religion. She wanted peace, unity, and conformity for her Church of England. She was a Protestant by conviction: learned, personally pious and observant, she read the Bible daily.[2]  Her Church of England was to be decidedly Protestant. The fact she had been declared illegitimate by Rome also required her to be Protestant in order to reign. Most of all she wanted to avoid the religious divisions and civil strife that lasted throughout Europe during her reign.
            Following the religious upheaval due to Henry VIII’s break with Rome, the succession of Edward VI (vigorously reformed), and the reactionary Queenship of Mary Tudor (Roman Catholic), she sought a midpoint between Catholics and the more radical reformers. Elizabeth’s decisions about religion would determine whether her reign would endure and whether England would suffer the civil unrest and violence of Continental Europe. Elizabeth navigated these troubled waters shrewdly, true to her religious convictions while maintaining civil order and stability. The English church she established could have been, and could be a model for reunifying the Christian church.[3]
Elizabeth’s father Henry VIII grew up and remained Catholic in personal preference, maintaining all the essential Catholic doctrines under his headship of the English Church, including the Catholic tenets on justification and transubstantiation.[4]  His separation from the Roman Catholic church had little if anything to do with theological persuasion, nor did it rise from any popular support for reform; it was, instead, born of the necessity to have a male heir to the throne.  That is, he put English political order first, not the church.[5] 
Parliament validated this in the Act of Supremacy in 1534, declaring the sovereign “supreme head” of the church in England.[6] These steps did not, however, automatically lead to a full embrace of Continental reformed theology.[7]  His Archbishop of Canterbury, Cranmer, was a committed Protestant. He was to be the main author of the Book of Common Prayer that first appeared in 1549, rich in scripture and allusions to scripture, reformed in theology, and engaging the laity in all aspects of worship.[8]  Henry, however, would best be described as a “non-Roman” Catholic, adhering in nearly all parts to the same Christianity as the Roman church right up to his own death January 28, 1547.
If Henry was comfortable with maintaining most of the old church practices and doctrines, his son, Edward VI (reigned 1547-1553), who assumed the throne at age nine, was not. Raised mainly by Catherine Parr,[9] and tutored by reformed scholars, Edward was a personally convinced Protestant even at a young age.[10]  Though under “protection” due to his minority, the new Josiah led the way for Cranmer, now freed to express his Protestant views more freely, to produce two versions of the Prayer Book, 1549 and 1552. He also led the writing of forty-two Articles of Religion, a richly reformed confessional statement, “for the avoiding of controversy in opinions and the establishment of a Godly concord in certain matters of religion.”[11]
Edward’s death in 1553, however, caused another political crisis and, within it, another religious crisis. Lady Jane Grey (1537-1554),[12] Henry’s reformed Protestant niece, wise beyond her years, was made the uncrowned queen for a mere nine days before being executed. Mary Tudor (February 1516 - November 1558) then took the crown, as much because the people wanted a direct heir of Henry on the throne as for any popular religious imperative. Mary was a Catholic reactionary and quickly undid all Edward’s reforms.[13]  She persecuted Protestants and executed over 300. Many fled to Geneva or Scotland.[14]  Upon Queen Mary’s death, Elizabeth, who had been careful not to give any cause for her own execution during Mary’s reign, became queen. The words attributed to her upon being informed, “This is the Lord's doing, and it is marvelous in our eyes,”[15] reflect both her knowledge of scripture and her personal faith.
Elizabeth ruled from 17 November 1558 until her death on 24 March 1603. She wanted unity and conformity for the Church of England. Schooled alongside Edward, her half-brother, by Protestant tutors, under the shelter of Catherine Parr, she was herself Protestant by conviction.[16] Having lived through the terrible period of Catholic Mary Tudor’s reign, she ascended to the throne threatened by challenges from within and without. On the matter of religion, the situation in England was unstable.
What Elizabeth did was to act quickly to settle the matter by crafting supremacy legislation, a prayer book, and a confession of faith that embodied both her sense of biblically sound Protestantism and her desire to avoid matters that would divide.[17]  She shepherded through Parliament legislation that restored the prayer book in a third revision melding the stronger Protestant language of the former book Mary had abolished with somewhat less reformed text and toning down some anti-Catholic rhetoric.[18]
Then she procured the development of a confession of faith, the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion. Based on the former 42 Articles, it struck a middle path (the so-called via media) between the Lutheran and other Reformed conceptions, grounded in the historic episcopate.[19]  She maintained Cranmer’s distinction between the essentials and things indifferent, or adiaphora.[20]  Her policy was to allow leeway locally for gradual acceptance of change, and she preferred to preserve some of the old forms and practices in worship.[21]  She accepted somewhat vague formulations that were nonetheless consistent with reformed orthodoxy, rather than forcing a specific doctrine on her people.  This does not mean her theology was weak or compromised, and she enjoyed considerable support from theologians and scholars.[22]  She sought only to avoid the high temperature disputes over points of doctrine that were provoking such bitterness and violence all around her. This was true, for example, in her manner of dealing with the point of doctrine that most prevented reuniting the Christian church:  the issue of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist and the Christological questions it raised.[23]
We can see this in brief with examples from the Prayer Book and the 39 Articles. Under the words of administration of the Lord’s Supper from Edward’s first prayer book in 1549, you would hear,[24]
The body of our Lord Jesus Christ, which was given for thee,
preserve thy body and soul into everlasting life.
 
The blood of our Lord Jesus Christ, which was shed for thee,
Preserve thy body and soul into everlasting life.
 
This language does not directly confront the question of the real presence or whether the sacrament operated ex opere operato. It could be read in an acceptable manner by a Catholic or a Lutheran. Three years later, however, when a second Edwardian prayer book came into use in 1552, it reflected criticisms by reformers such as Martin Bucer and read,
Take and eat this in remembrance that Christ died for thee,
and feed on him in thy heart by faith, with thanksgiving.
 
Drink this in remembrance that Christ’s blood was shed for thee,
and be thankful.
 
This is readily seen as more consistent with the view that the Lord’s Supper is, if not purely, mainly, a memorial, with no suggestion of a real presence, let alone transubstantiation.
            When the Prayer Book was restored under Queen Elizabeth in 1559, it reflected her desire to be nonspecific (and non-divisive) when possible without fatal compromise to her Protestant convictions. The words you would then hear upon reception of the elements were,[25]
The body of our Lord Jesus Christ, which was given for thee,
preserve thy body and soul into everlasting life: and take and
eat this in remembrance that Christ died for thee,
and feed on him in thy heart by faith, with thanksgiving.
 
The blood of our Lord Jesus Christ, which was shed for thee,
Preserve thy body and soul into everlasting life: and
drink this in remembrance that Christ’s blood was shed for thee,
and be thankful.
 
The words are identical to the phrases of the two previous books conflated by a colon to produce one text. Not wholly agreeable to any faction but complete in its own way, it reflects Elizabeth’s own convictions, so far as we can know them, with respect to the Eucharist.[26]  She firmly rejected transubstantiation but was probably closer to the Lutheran view of a real presence than the Zwinglian memorial view. The statement she approved melded them both.[27]  Her object was to settle the matter on one point of most severe contention in the early decades of the English Reformation, avoiding the struggles experienced at home and elsewhere.[28]
Elizabeth’s religious settlement is very like the “third force” or middle path of Christian humanism whose intellectual leader was Erasmus.[29] She wanted conformity and order above all.[30] She is described as an Erasmian reformer: “Queen Elizabeth of England was certainly an Erasmian princess, learned, moderate in her religious views, and protector of scholars like Dr. [John] Dee.”[31] “Elizabeth was a subtle and reflective woman who had learnt about politics the hard way.  She showed no enthusiasm for high temperature religion, despite the private depth and quiet intensity of her own devotional life.”[32] Her upbringing and personal faith were Protestant, and she saw to it that the church under her headship was both Protestant and apostolic, without forcing on her people any doctrine or practice that was intolerable to large numbers.[33] The model she established, not strictly imposing one view on matters of indifference while resting on the apostolic foundations of the ages, successfully finds the navigable part of the channel between the conflicting theological shoals of her age.[34]  At times it appeared Anglicanism could be more widely embraced as a solution to the Protestant divisions of the sixteenth century.[35] If adopted more widely today, it could perhaps serve as a safe harbor to unify the church, at least among those who hold orthodox Christian beliefs and seek to uphold the apostolic succession.[36]  What are “orthodox Christian beliefs”?  A good place to find them is the 39 Articles of Religion, the Prayer Book of 1559, and the ancient confessions embraced therein.

Bibliography
Bernard, G.W. The King’s Reformation: Henry VIII and the Remaking of the English Church. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2005.
 
Book of Common Prayer, And Adminiſtration of the Sacraments, and other rites and ceremonies of the Church According to the Uſe of The Church of England: together with the Psalter or Psalms of David Pointed as they are to be ſung or ſaid in Churches, The, 1662,  https://www.eskimo.com/~lhowell/bcp1662/communion/index.html, accessed March 27, 2020.
 
Bullett, Maggie. “The Reception of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement in Three Yorkshire Parishes,” 1559–72, Northern History, 48:2 (2011), 225-252.
 
Busfield, Lucy. 2013. “Women, Men and Christ Crucified: Protestant Passion Piety in Sixteenth-Century England.” Reformation & Renaissance Review 15 (3): 217–36.
 
Church of England. The Booke of Common Prayer, and Administracion of the Sacramentes, and Other Rites and Ceremonies in the Churche of England London, in officina Richardi Iugge & Iohannis Cawood, 1559.. http://ezproxy.liberty.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-, com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/docview/2240869376?accountid=12085, accessed April 1, 2020.
 
Clegg, Cyndia Susan. “The 1559 Books of Common Prayer and the Elizabethan Reformation.” The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 67 (1, 2016): 94–121.
 
Congress of Religion, The. Unity LXVIII, No. 8 (Chicago: Lincoln Press, 1916): 396-98.
 
Cook, Faith. Lady Jane Grey: Nine Day Queen of England. Darlington: Evangelical Press, 2004.
 
Davie, Martin. “Calvin’s Influence on the Theology of the English Reformation.” Ecclesiology 6 (3) (2010): 315–41.
 
Davis, Natalie Zemon. "The Rites of Violence: Religious Riot in Sixteenth-Century France." Past & Present, no. 59 (1973): 51-91.
 
Doran, Susan. “Elizabeth I’s Religion: The Evidence of Her Letters.” The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 51, no. 4 (October 2000): 699–720.
 
Goring, Jeremy. “The Reformation of the Ministry in Elizabethan Sussex.” The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 34 (3) (1983): 345–66.
 
Green, Janet M. “‘I My Self’: Queen Elizabeth I's Oration at Tilbury Camp.” The Sixteenth Century Journal 28, no. 2 (1997): 421–45.
 
____________. “Queen Elizabeth I's Latin Reply to the Polish Ambassador.” The Sixteenth Century Journal 31, no. 4 (2000): 987–1008.
 
Johnson, Paul. A History of Christianity. New York: Touchstone, 1976.
 
Lane, Tony. A Concise History of Christian Thought. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006.
 
Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A History of Christianity, Beginnings to 1500, vol. II. Peabody, MA: Prince Press, 1975.
 
MacCulloch, Diarmaid. Christianity:  The First Three Thousand Years. New York: Penguin, 2009.
 
MacCulloch, Diarmaid. "Putting the English Reformation on the Map: The Prothero Lecture." Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 15 (2005): 75-95.
 
McGrath, Alister E. Historical Theology, 2d ed. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.
_______________. Reformation Thought, An Introduction, 4th ed. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
Noll, Mark A. Turning Points, Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity 3d ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012.
 
Reeves, Michael. “Elizabeth and the Rise of the Puritans.” Lecture from Ligonier Ministries series on the English Reformation, 2019.
 
Scarisbrick, J. J. Henry VIII. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1997.
 
Spickard, Paul R., and Kevin M. Cragg. A Global History of Christians. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1994.
 
Thompson, Mark. “Origin of the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion.”  Churchman, Vol. 12 (1) (2011): 37-XX.
 
Vitale, Kyle Sebastian. “An Overlooked Detail in Elizabeth I’s Coronation.” Notes and Queries 65 [263], no. 1 (March 2018): 25–27.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 


[1] By Rev Dcn Bryan M. Dench, St. Paul’s Anglican Church, Portland, Maine.

[2] She demonstrated her devotion to the Bible at her coronation by pausing in procession not merely to receive a Bible (in English) but to kiss it. Kyle Sebastian Vitale, “An Overlooked Detail in Elizabeth I’s Coronation,” Notes and Queries 65 [263], no. 1 (March 2018): 25–27. Her surviving letters show a deep personal faith, Protestant in theology. See Susan Doran, “Elizabeth I’s Religion: The Evidence of Her Letters,” The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 51, no. 4 (October 2000), 699–720. She is believed to have read the Bible in Greek daily. Michael Reeves, “Elizabeth and the Rise of the Puritans,” (lecture from Ligonier Ministries series on the English Reformation, 2019).

[3] Note that England was unique as a place where the Reformation took its initiative from the sovereign, not from scholars or a popular movement of any kind. In fact, Henry VIII was never a committed Protestant but sought control of the church for political reasons. The sovereign rulers of other countries adopted Protestantism only after the reform movement was established by other means, whereupon, according to cujus regio, ejus religio, the people followed, like it or not. See, e.g., Kenneth Scott Latourette, A History of Christianity, Beginnings to 1500, vol. II (Peabody, MA: Prince Press, 1975), 729. See also Diarmaid MacCulloch, Christianity:  The First Three Thousand Years (New York: Penguin, 2009), 635-37, discussing similar attempts at formulating a unifying doctrine through the Consensus Tigurinus (1549), the efforts of Calvin, and the Heidelberg Catechism of 1563. Calvin it seems was little aware of the reforming activities in England and little involved, except by way of being a target of attacks by critics of reform. See Martin Davie, “Calvin’s Influence on the Theology of the English Reformation,” Ecclesiology 6 (3) (2010), 315–41.

[4]  Paul Johnson, A History of Christianity (New York: Touchstone, 1976), 294-95 Henry was satisfied with the kind of Christianity developed by the Medieval church that was largely mechanical, what people “did,” rather than what they believed or thought, administered by the church. Ibid., 228, 267.

[5] Evidence of this can be seen, for example, in the Six Articles Henry shepherded through Parliament in 1539, which, among other things, reaffirmed transubstantiation and clerical celibacy, forcing Archbp. Cranmer to send his wife to the Continent for safety. Mark Thompson, “Origin of the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion,” Churchman, Vol. 12 (1) (2011), 37-39. More so his retained commitment to Catholicism came through in the King’s Book of 1534. Alister E. McGrath, Reformation Thought, An Introduction, 4th ed. (Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012), 229-30. See also Latourette, History of Christianity, 802-805.

[6] This theory of royal supremacy was not entirely new, but emerged out of long history of legal, theological and academic debate back at least into the twelfth century, with biblical, patristic, papal, legal, political and historical roots. See, e.g., the discussions cited in note 4 supra. See also Tony Lane, A Concise History of Christian Thought (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006), 192-96; Mark A. Noll, Turning Points, Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity 3-D ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012), 168-70; Latourette, History of Christianity, 797-99.

[7] Latourette, History of Christianity, 799-805.

[8] E.g., Paul R. Spickard and Kevin M. Cragg, A Global History of Christians (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1994), 190-91. Cranmer fused Erasmian thought with continental reform. He distinguished between the essential and the indifferent.

[9] Parr was a devout and thoroughly reformed Protestant. Lucy Busfield, “Women, Men and Christ Crucified: Protestant Passion Piety in Sixteenth-Century England,” Reformation & Renaissance Review 15 (3) (2010): 217–36.

[10] Latourette, History of Christianity, 805-807.

[11] Davie, “Calvin’s Influence,” 320. See also McGrath, Reformation Thought, 230-39; Cyndia Susan Clegg, “The 1559 Books of Common Prayer and the Elizabethan Reformation,” The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 67 (1, 2016), 94–121; MacCulloch, Christianity, 630-32.

[12] Busfield, “Women, Men and Christ Crucified: Protestant Passion Piety in Sixteenth-Century England,” 219-220. See generally Faith Cook, Lady Jane Grey: Nine Day Queen of England (Darlington: Evangelical Press, 2004).

[13] Latourette, History of Christianity, 807-810.

[14] Latourette, History of Christianity, 809.

[15] Psalm 118:23.

[16] E.g., Diarmaid MacCulloch, "Putting the English Reformation on the Map: The Prothero Lecture," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 15 (2005), 89; MacCulloch, Christianity:  The First Three Thousand Years, 638-39; Reeves, “Elizabeth and the Rise of the Puritans.”

[17] The Elizabethan Act of Supremacy was enacted by Parliament in April 1559.

[18]   The Act of Uniformity 1558 (1 Eliz 1 c 2). Parliament acted in April 1559, but under the dating practice that dated all legislation as of the beginning year of a parliamentary session, the date commonly given is 1558.

[19] The 39 Articles were drawn up by the Church in convocation in 1563 working from the 42 Articles of 1553, and in 1571 Parliament ordered clergymen to subscribe to them. The 42 articles were the work of Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury (1533-1556), who with other clergy developed several statements of faith during the reign of Henry VIII.  Then during the reign of Edward VI, the ecclesiastical reformers presented a doctrinal statement consisting of forty-two points, just before the death of Edward, whereupon Mary reversed it all. There are two editions of the 39 Articles, the Latin version of 1563 and an English version approved in 1571.

[20] Spickard and Cragg, Global History, 190. “She had already argued in several of her communications to Protestant princes abroad, during the late 1570s and early 1580s, that the Scriptures provided no clear answer to the mysteries of predestinarianism and the Lord’s Supper, and that consequently they were ‘questiones contentiosas et inutiles’ (‘contentious and useless questions’) which could be dismissed as things indifferent or, in her own words, as ‘non magni momenti res’. In her view, these doctrinal issues needed to be settled by individual princes, presumably with the help of theologians, who should avoid too precise a definition of their meaning in order to prevent divisions and schisms from engulfing Protestantism.”  Doran, “Elizabeth I’s Religion: The Evidence of Her Letters,” 707.

[21] “The evidence tends to point towards a conclusion that the slow pace of reform in its early years was actually the Elizabethan Reformation’s greatest strength. Concessions in the 1559 Acts and Injunctions, such as the use of wafer bread, the wearing of copes and the altar-wise position for the communion table, helped to ease parishes into Protestantism.” Maggie Bullett, “The Reception of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement in Three Yorkshire Parishes,” 1559–72, Northern History, 48:2 (2011), 251-52.

[22] Latourette, History of Christianity, 812, citing the examples of John Jewell (1522-1571) (taught by Peter Martyr) and Richard Hooker (1554-1600).

[23] It was this issue that led to impasse at the Regensburg colloquy and most thwarted Protestant efforts to produce joint agreed upon statements of belief. Johnson, Christian History, 285-286, 295; McGrath, Historical Theology, 132-133, 137-138, 141, 164-167; McGrath, Reformation Thought, 162-172, 174-179, 181-183, 185-187; MacCulloch, Christianity, 629-630, 635-637, 662-663.

[24] The Two Liturgies, A.D. 1549 and A.D. 1552 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1844), 92.

[25] Church of England, The Booke of Common Prayer, and Administracion of the Sacramentes, and Other Rites and Ceremonies in the Churche of England London, in officina Richardi Iugge & Iohannis Cawood, 1559, 129-130. http://ezproxy.liberty.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-, com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/docview/2240869376?accountid=12085, accessed April 1, 2020. “The First Prayer Book of Edward VI (1549), the liturgical book of the newly Reformed English church that contained evidence of Lutheran influence, was submitted for formal criticism to Bucer, who could not speak English. His assessment, the Censura, delivered to the Bishop Ely a month before Bucer died, pointed out the vague Lutheranisms of the prayer book. The Second Prayer Book of Edward VI (1552), utilizing Bucer’s criticism, offended the conservatives in the English church and did not satisfy the more radical reformers; it remained in force for about eight months. Bucer’s influence as a mediator, however, continued to have its effect in subsequent attempts at compromise in the English church in the 16th century.”
.

[26]  “There are other pieces of evidence which point to Elizabeth holding a personal faith in the real presence, although whether she understood the presence to be corporeal or spiritual in nature cannot be determined with any certainty.” Doran, “Elizabeth I’s Religion: The Evidence of Her Letters,” 710-711.

[27] McGrath, Reformation Thought, 236-38.

[28] “The 1559 statement sets both [Lutheran and Zwinglian] positions alongside one another without attempting any form of theological resolution…. The Elizabethan ‘Settlement of Religion’ was essentially pragmatic rather than theological. Perhaps this could be seen as the most distinctive characteristic of the English Reformation under Elizabeth: a desire to reconcile all parties within the theologically and socially fragmented nation and recover a sense of national unity.”  McGrath, Reformation Thought, 238.

[29] Ibid. See also Johnson, History of Christianity, 269-80,  

[30] And despite her willingness to tolerate other views she was also willing to compel formal adherence to the worship practices of the English Church, as illustrated by The Act of Uniformity 1559 (1 Eliz., c. 2), which among other things required church attendance or payment of a fine.

[31] Dee was a scholar of mathematics and friend of humanists like Giordano Bruno, Sir Phillip Sidney, and Sidney’s sister, the Countess of Pembroke, and their intellectual circle, who advocated reunification of the church. Johnson, History of Christianity, 323. Elizabeth benefited from an uncommonly rich education for a female in her era at the hands of Roger Ascham and others, and she had mastery of Latin and Greek among other subjects. See Janet M. Green, “‘I My Self’: Queen Elizabeth I's Oration at Tilbury Camp,” The Sixteenth Century Journal 28, no. 2 (1997), 421–25; Janet M. Green, “Queen Elizabeth I's Latin Reply to the Polish Ambassador,” The Sixteenth Century Journal 31, no. 4 (2000): 987–88.

[32] Diarmaid MacCulloch, "Putting the English Reformation on the Map: The Prothero Lecture," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 15 (2005), 89.

[33]  Ibid., 89-91 (offense taken by some to three-fold ministry, rites and observances, and maintenance of cathedrals). “Even in the north, the south-east Lancashire towns, and York, for instance, tended to favor the Anglican settlement, and by the end of Elizabeth’s reign the number of actual recusants even in Lancashire and Yorkshire, the most Catholic regions, was less than five percent of the population.”  Johnson, Christian History, 296. This was the opposite of France, where the Protestant population was never able to pass ten percent, aiding for instance Henry IV’s conversion to Catholicism in 1593, which Elizabeth regarded as a monstrous betrayal. Doran, “Elizabeth I’s Religion: The Evidence of Her Letters,” 716.
 

[34] It is worth noting also that the process of reform in England, as elsewhere, was often slowed by the lack of quality, trained clergy. In 1585 a survey of parishes throughout England compiled a “blacklist” of inadequately trained or incompetent clergy that was extensive and only gradually corrected, though interestingly Sussex was apparently one shire in which the opposite was true, said to be attributable to a local history of clerical reform. Jeremy Goring, “The Reformation of the Ministry in Elizabethan Sussex,” The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 34 (3) (1983), 345–66. See also Alister E. McGrath, Historical Theology, 2d ed. (Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013), 130.

[35] In the Jacobean period the Anglicanism established by Elizabeth was the best hope for the third force. The English ambassador thought Venice might well embrace a form of it, and in 1616, Antonio de Dominis, Archbishop of Spoleto, converted to Anglicanism in 1616. He later published a history of the Council of Trent by Paolo Sarpi, which told the inside story of how the Pope manipulated the Council against the reformers, a book dedicated to James I! Johnson, History of Christianity, 324-25. However, James failed to come to the aid of Venice in the 1620s as Spain and Counter Reformation rolled across Europe, a betrayal of the embittered Venetians who supported the third force. Ibid., 326. The enthusiasm resurfaced in the 1640s under Charles I, but collapsed under civil war and sectarian strife, after which few thought re-unification a real possibility. Ibid., 326-27.

[36] Prospects for religious reunification were highest in the 1540’s and 1550’s, with reformers and Catholics such as Cardinal Gasparo Contarini, willing to work out agreement if possible on justification and the sacraments, for example. It was largely inability to agree on the theology of the Lord’s Supper, coupled with political divisions of European states and, and the intransigence of Rome regarding the power of the church, that prevented it. See, e.g., Diarmaid MacCulloch, Christianity:  The First Three Thousand Years, (New York: Penguin, 2009), 629-37, 649-667; Johnson, Christian History, 284-86, 290-95, 319-20, 322-38. Elizabeth was widely seen as the leader for possible unification, and she was offered the “governorship” of the Netherlands when Protestant leader William the Silent was assassinated, ibid., 292, but in the larger setting “she was disqualified by her sex.”  Ibid., 323. 

PET ROCK
Saint Paul's clergy participated in the annual Pet Rock event at Deering Oaks on Sunday the 25th of August to conduct a blessing of animals. See the video here

​Pet Rock in the Park 2024 Video

​
As the Christmas season ends, the Church turns its focus to Epiphany, a feast celebrated on January 6th. The word “Epiphany” comes from the Greek “epiphaneia,” meaning “manifestation” or “revealing.” This day commemorates the revelation of Jesus Christ to the world, particularly as represented by the visit of the Magi, the wise men from the East, who recognized the infant Jesus as King.

Epiphany is often called “Three Kings’ Day” in many cultures, but its significance extends far beyond their journey. It is a reminder that Christ came not just for Israel but for all nations, a truth revealed in the Magi’s homage. Let us explore the deeper meaning of Epiphany, its biblical roots, and how it connects to the beloved tradition of the Twelve Days of Christmas.

The Biblical Story of Epiphany. The primary narrative associated with Epiphany is found in Matthew 2:1-12. After Jesus’ birth, Magi from the East arrived in Jerusalem, seeking “the one who has been born king of the Jews.” Guided by a star, they found Jesus in Bethlehem and offered gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. Each gift carried profound meaning: gold symbolized Jesus’ kingship, frankincense His divinity, and myrrh His future suffering and death.

The Magi’s journey underscores key themes of Epiphany: God’s revelation to outsiders, the universality of Christ’s mission, and the call to worship Him with our treasures and lives. Their story reminds us that Jesus is the light of the world, shining in the darkness for all people.

The Twelve Days of Christmas and Epiphany. Epiphany marks the culmination of the Christmas season, which traditionally spans twelve days beginning on December 25th. While the carol “The Twelve Days of Christmas” is often sung as a fun holiday tune, it holds layers of hidden Christian symbolism, offering a spiritual connection to the themes of Epiphany.
Legend has it that “The Twelve Days of Christmas” originated as a catechetical song in times of religious oppression. Each gift is said to represent an aspect of the Christian faith:

1. Partridge in a Pear Tree: Jesus Christ, symbolizing His sacrifice and steadfast love.
2. Two Turtle Doves: The Old and New Testaments.
3. Three French Hens: Faith, hope, and love—the theological virtues.
4. Four Calling Birds: The four Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.
5. Five Gold Rings: The Pentateuch, the first five books of the Old Testament.
6. Six Geese a-Laying: The six days of creation.
7. Seven Swans a-Swimming: The seven gifts of the Holy Spirit.
8. Eight Maids a-Milking: The Beatitudes.
9. Nine Ladies Dancing: The nine fruits of the Spirit.
10. Ten Lords a-Leaping: The Ten Commandments.
11. Eleven Pipers Piping: The eleven faithful apostles.
12. Twelve Drummers Drumming: The twelve points of belief in the Apostles’ Creed.

Epiphany invites us to reflect on how God’s gifts manifest in our lives and to respond with gratitude and devotion.

The Light of Christ and Our Response. Epiphany is a feast of light and revelation. The star that guided the Magi symbolizes Christ as the light that leads us to God. As Isaiah 60:1-3 proclaims: “Arise, shine, for your light has come, and the glory of the Lord rises upon you.” This light is not meant to be hidden but shared with the world.

In our journey of faith, we are called to be like the Magi: seekers of truth who respond to God’s revelation with worship and obedience. Their gifts inspire us to offer what is most precious to us, dedicating our time, talents, and treasures to God’s service. Just as the Magi’s journey culminated in finding Christ, our spiritual journey should lead us to deeper communion with Him.
Living the Spirit of Epiphany. The celebration of Epiphany challenges us to reflect on how we reveal Christ to others. Are we bearers of His light in our families, workplaces, and communities? The Magi’s example reminds us that God’s grace transcends boundaries, calling us to welcome and love all people as Christ does.

As we move beyond the Twelve Days of Christmas into the new year, let Epiphany inspire us to live as witnesses to the light of Christ. Whether through acts of kindness, sharing the Gospel, or deepening our spiritual practices, we can manifest God’s love in tangible ways.

Epiphany is a celebration of God’s revelation in Jesus Christ, a light for all nations. It reminds us of the universal scope of the Gospel, the call to worship Christ with our whole being, and the joy of sharing His light with the world. The traditions of the Twelve Days of Christmas enrich this season, connecting the joy of Christ’s birth to the profound truths of faith.
As we gather to celebrate Epiphany at St. Paul’s Anglican Church, may we be renewed in our commitment to follow the star—to seek Christ and reveal His love to the world. Let us, like the Magi, bring our gifts before the King of Kings and go forth as witnesses to His light. Amen.
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Dr. Dan Mickool Sr. Warden

Gratitude is more than just a polite gesture or a social nicety; it's a powerful force that can positively impact our psychological well-being in profound ways. From ancient wisdom to modern psychological research, the benefits of practicing gratitude are well-documented and supported by both science and spirituality. Psychologically, gratitude serves as a catalyst for happiness and contentment. When we express gratitude, whether through verbal affirmations, written notes, or simply by reflecting on the things we're thankful for, our brains release dopamine and serotonin, neurotransmitters associated with pleasure and well-being. This neurochemical response not only enhances our mood in the present moment but also contributes to long-term mental health by reducing stress and anxiety levels.

Moreover, cultivating gratitude fosters resilience in the face of adversity. By acknowledging the blessings in our lives, even during challenging times, we shift our focus from what's lacking to what we have, thus empowering ourselves to cope with difficulties more effectively. This shift in perspective can lead to greater emotional stability and a more optimistic outlook on life. Furthermore, practicing gratitude strengthens social bonds and promotes empathy and compassion. For example, when we express gratitude towards others, whether friends, family, or strangers, we acknowledge their kindness and generosity, fostering a sense of connection and reciprocity. This, in turn, deepens our relationships and encourages prosocial behavior, creating a ripple effect of positivity within our communities (Eisenberg et al., 2006).

From a biblical perspective, the practice of gratitude is deeply rooted in spiritual wisdom. Throughout the Bible, numerous verses exhort believers to give thanks in all circumstances, emphasizing the importance of acknowledging God's goodness and faithfulness. For instance, in the book of Psalms, King David repeatedly sings praises to God and expresses gratitude for His blessings, declaring, "Give thanks to the Lord, for he is good; his love endures forever" (Psalm 107:1, NIV). The New Testament also echoes this sentiment, with the apostle Paul exhorting Christians to "give thanks in all circumstances; for this is God’s will for you in Christ Jesus" (1 Thessalonians 5:18, NIV). The act of giving thanks is portrayed as an essential aspect of spiritual life, serving as a form of worship and acknowledgment of God's sovereignty and provision. The doxology, the concluding hymn of our offertory, resounds with gratitude: "Praise God, from whom all blessings flow." It unites our voices in praise, echoing through the sanctuary, affirming our commitment to stewardship. With reverence, we offer our gifts, in gratitude to the One who gives us His all.

Moreover, the biblical principle of sowing and reaping applies to gratitude as well. In the book of Galatians, Paul writes, "Do not be deceived: God cannot be mocked. A man reaps what he sows" (Galatians 6:7, NIV). By cultivating a heart of gratitude and expressing thankfulness towards God and others, believers position themselves to receive abundant blessings in return, both spiritually and materially. In terms of health claims, research has indeed shown a correlation between gratitude and various aspects of physical health. Studies suggest that individuals who regularly practice gratitude experience improved immune function, lower blood pressure, and better sleep quality. Moreover, the positive effects of gratitude on mental health, such as reduced symptoms of depression and anxiety, indirectly contribute to overall well-being and longevity (Newman 2021).
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In conclusion, the practice of gratitude is not only psychologically healthy but also deeply rooted in spiritual wisdom. By cultivating an attitude of thankfulness and expressing gratitude towards God and others, we not only enhance our own well-being but also contribute to the flourishing of our communities and the world at large. So let us embrace the transformative power of gratitude and make it a daily practice in our lives.
 
 

Imagine you're sitting in a cozy corner of your favorite café, enveloped in the aroma of freshly brewed coffee. Across the table sits a friend, curious and open-minded, yet skeptical about matters of faith. It's in this setting that we embark on a journey through the rich tapestry of ontological arguments, inviting exploration and dialogue. Ontological arguments, while sounding complex, are philosophical reflections on the nature of existence and the concept of God. They're like thought experiments that encourage us to ponder the possibility of a divine presence beyond our tangible reality. As believers, it's our privilege to engage in thoughtful conversation, offering insights that inspire wonder and curiosity. 

Let's begin with the classic argument proposed by Saint Anselm, a renowned theologian and philosopher from the 11th century. Anselm invites us to consider the very idea of God – a being greater than which none can be conceived. It's akin to imagining the most perfect island paradise imaginable – and then realizing that it must exist, for a truly perfect island wouldn't be perfect if it only existed in our minds. Now, let's fast forward to the 20th century and meet Alvin Plantinga, a contemporary philosopher who revitalized the age-old argument. Plantinga introduces the concept of "possible worlds," suggesting that if God exists in any possible world, then He exists in all possible worlds – including ours. It's like saying that if there's even a chance of winning the lottery, then you're a winner in every possible outcome. 

R.C. Sproul, a beloved theologian and apologist, further deepened our understanding of the ontological arguments. He emphasized the distinction between necessary and contingent beings, highlighting the unique status of God as a necessary being. Contingent beings depend on external factors for their existence, while a necessary being, such as God, exists by the very necessity of His own nature. If anything exists, then the purposive mind, God, must exist as the only self-existent being. Sproul's insights shed light on the profound implications of God's existence as a foundational reality. Greg Bahnsen, another influential figure in Christian apologetics, contributed to the discourse with his rigorous defense of the ontological argument. Bahnsen emphasized the coherence of the concept of God as the ultimate foundation of reality. He argued that denying the existence of God leads to logical absurdities and undermines the very basis of rational thought. Bahnsen's work challenges skeptics to grapple with the logical consequences of their disbelief and invites them to consider the coherence of the Christian worldview. 

Dutch-American philosopher Cornelius Van Til's approach to apologetics centers on the presuppositional method, which asserts that all human thought and reasoning are grounded in the existence of God. Rather than treating God's existence as a hypothesis to be proven, Van Til invites us to recognize it as the presupposition that underpins all rational inquiry. In this light, ontological arguments take on a deeper significance, serving not only as intellectual exercises but as reflections of our fundamental reliance on God's existence for coherent thought and reasoning. Van Til's perspective challenges us to reconsider the very framework through which we approach ontological arguments. Instead of viewing God's existence as a hypothetical conclusion drawn from human reasoning, Van Til suggests that it is the very foundation upon which rationality itself rests. In this sense, Anselm's argument becomes not just a philosophical exercise but a profound recognition of the ultimate source of all meaning and coherence in the universe. Similarly, Van Til's perspective sheds new light on Alvin Plantinga's concept of "possible worlds." While Plantinga's argument highlights the logical possibility of God's existence in various hypothetical scenarios, Van Til's presuppositional framework invites us to see God's existence as the necessary precondition for the existence of any possible world. Without God as the ultimate ground of reality, the very concept of "possible worlds" loses its coherence and significance. 

As believers, we approach these arguments not with arrogance or superiority, but with humility and openness. We recognize that they're not intended to coerce belief but to spark curiosity and contemplation. We share them with non-believing friends as invitations to explore the mysteries of existence together, fostering meaningful dialogue and mutual understanding. Our goal is not to win arguments but to build bridges of connection and trust. We seek to engage with non-believing friends in a spirit of warmth and empathy, offering insights that inspire curiosity and invite reflection. So, the next time you find yourself in conversation with a non-believing friend, consider sharing these insights with a warm smile and a genuine desire for connection. Invite them to ponder the possibility of a divine presence, encouraging them to explore the beauty of faith at their own pace. May grace, humility, and a shared pursuit of truth mark our conversations. May we journey together in curiosity and wonder, discovering the depth and richness of God's existence as we explore the mysteries of life and faith. "but in your hearts regard Christ the Lord as holy, ready at any time to give a defense to anyone who asks you for a reason for the hope that is in you. Yet do this with gentleness and reverence, " 1 Peter 3:15
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 By Senior Warden Dan Mickool

In the tumultuous landscape of modern life, our failures often stand as glaring reminders of our desperate need for grace. Consider the case of Kat Von D, the celebrated tattoo artist, devotee of witchcraft and new age spirituality, turned makeup mogul. Her journey from rebellion to redemption is a poignant testament to the transformative power of grace. In the spotlight of fame, Kat Von D once epitomized the counterculture of defiance, with her bold tattoos and unapologetic persona. Yet, beneath the veneer of success lurked a profound sense of emptiness and brokenness. Despite her outward confidence, Kat Von D grappled with inner turmoil and a longing for something more profound than mere worldly acclaim.

It was amidst this internal struggle that Kat Von D encountered the transformative message of the Gospel—a message that proclaims freedom and redemption to all who are willing to receive it. In a stunning reversal of fortunes, Kat Von D embraced her faith journey, publicly professing her newfound commitment to Christ through baptism.

"There's the symbolic gesture of baptism, but also a part for me is a bit of making amends with my followers because for so many years, I've been putting out a certain message that makes me sad I was ever even a part of," she explained.[1]

Her testimony serves as a powerful reminder that no one is beyond the reach of God's grace, no matter how far they may have strayed. The heart of the Gospel lies in its message of good news—that despite our failures and shortcomings, God's grace extends to us freely, offering forgiveness, redemption, and a new beginning.

Paul’s words in Romans 7, where he candidly confesses his struggles with sin and his inability to do the good he desires, reflect this truth. Paul's words echo across the centuries, resonating with contemporary struggles that we face in our daily lives. Whether it's battling addiction, grappling with mental health issues, or wrestling with the demands of modern life, we are all too familiar with the crushing weight of our own inadequacies. Like Paul, we find ourselves trapped in a cycle of sin and self-condemnation, longing for deliverance from our own weaknesses. Yet, it is precisely in our moments of brokenness and despair that the message of grace shines most brightly.

Just as Paul declares in Romans 7:24-25, "Wretched man that I am! Who will deliver me from this body of death? Thanks be to God through Jesus Christ our Lord!" (ESV), we too can find hope and redemption in the unmerited favor of God. Just as Kat Von D has done. In a world plagued by sin and despair, the Gospel remains a beacon of hope—a reminder that our failures do not define us, and that true freedom is found in surrendering to the grace of God. As we navigate the complexities of life, may we cling to this promise of grace, knowing that it is through our weaknesses that God's strength is made perfect.

[1] https://toofab.com/2023/11/09/kat-von-d-opens-up-about-controversial-decision-to-denounce-witchcraft-and-embrace-christianity/ (accessed February 25, 2024)

In the Christian tradition, Lent marks a period of reflection, repentance, and spiritual discipline leading up to Easter Sunday. It's a time when believers worldwide engage in acts of self-denial, prayer, and contemplation, seeking to draw closer to God. At the heart of Lent lies the profound concept of sola gratia, or "grace alone" – a foundational tenet of Christian faith that underscores our complete dependence on the unmerited favor and love of God. 
As we journey through Lent, it's imperative to reflect on the significance of sola gratia and how it informs our trust in Jesus, especially amidst life's trials. Scripture resounds with the theme of grace as the central force in our salvation journey. Ephesians 2:8-9 declares, "For by grace you have been saved through faith. And this is not your own doing; it is the gift of God, not a result of works, so that no one may boast." This passage encapsulates the essence of sola gratia – our salvation is not earned through our efforts or merits but is freely given by God's grace. During Lent, as we meditate on our personal sinfulness, we're reminded that our redemption is solely the work of God's undeserved kindness.
The Lenten season often brings its share of trials and challenges. Whether it's grappling with personal struggles, facing uncertainty, or enduring hardship, these moments can test our faith and resolve. Yet, it's precisely in these times that the concept of sola gratia shines brightly. Romans 5:8 beautifully articulates this truth: "But God shows his love for us in that while we were still sinners, Christ died for us." Jesus' sacrificial death on the cross demonstrates the incomprehensible depth of God's grace – a love so profound that it reaches us in our fallenness and redeems us despite our unworthiness. Trusting Jesus amidst trials means surrendering our burdens and weaknesses to Him, acknowledging that His grace is more than sufficient for our needs. 2 Corinthians 12:9 offers comfort and assurance in times of difficulty: "But he said to me, 'My grace is sufficient for you, for my power is made perfect in weakness.' Therefore, I will boast all the more gladly of my weaknesses, so that the power of Christ may rest upon me." In our weakness, Jesus' strength is made manifest, and His grace becomes our sustaining force.
Lent invites us to embrace a posture of humility and repentance, recognizing our need for God's grace anew each day. As we journey through this season, let us remember the words of Hebrews 4:16: "Let us then with confidence draw near to the throne of grace, that we may receive mercy and find grace to help in time of need." In the midst of life's trials, we're invited to approach God's throne boldly, knowing that His grace is readily available to strengthen, comfort, and sustain us. Moreover, as we reflect on the significance of sola gratia during Lent, we're compelled to extend that same grace to others. Just as we have received God's unmerited favor, we're called to embody that grace in our interactions with those around us. Ephesians 4:32 exhorts us to "Be kind to one another, tenderhearted, forgiving one another, as God in Christ forgave you." Our experience of God's grace should overflow into acts of compassion, forgiveness, and love towards others, mirroring the boundless grace we've received. May we approach God's throne with confidence, receiving His mercy and finding grace to help in our time of need. And may we, in turn, extend that same grace to others, embodying the love and compassion of Christ in all that we do.

Dr. Dan Mickool Senior Warden
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In the dynamic and ever-evolving landscape of modern worship, the question of the necessity of ritual and liturgy in the church becomes increasingly relevant. With contemporary worship forms gaining popularity, there is a growing discussion about the merits of returning to traditional practices that have stood the test of time. Theologians like John Stott and N.T. Wright have significantly contributed to this discourse, shedding light on the profound significance of ritual and liturgy in shaping the Christian experience.

John Stott, a respected evangelical theologian, emphasized the importance of worship as a transformative encounter with God. While acknowledging that contemporary forms of worship may express creativity and relevance, Stott cautioned against becoming overly focused on individual preferences and emotions. He argued that ritual and liturgy, with their historical grounding, provide a sense of continuity with the Church's rich heritage and act as a safeguard against individualism. N.T. Wright, a prominent New Testament scholar, echoes Stott's sentiments by emphasizing the communal aspect of worship. Wright contends that liturgical practices connect worshippers across time and space, fostering a sense of unity with the global Church and the saints who have gone before. He sees the liturgy as a powerful means of transmitting the faith through generations, offering a communal engagement with God.

A highlight of liturgical traditions is the use of the law and gospel preaching. The liturgy provides a framework for both the proclamation of God's law, convincing hearts of sin, and the announcement of the gospel, offering the liberating message of grace. This dynamic interplay between law and gospel within the liturgy mirrors the biblical narrative, where God's righteous standards confront human brokenness, pointing us to the redemptive work of Christ.

As the hymn echoes through the sacred space:

"Amazing grace! How sweet the sound
That saved a wretch like me!
I once was lost, but now am found,
Was blind but now I see."

This hymn encapsulates the essence of the gospel, emphasizing the amazing power of God's grace. The law exposes our need for redemption, highlighting our brokenness, while the gospel announces the message of salvation and restoration. With scripture serving as the foundation for the liturgy, psalms, hymns, and prayers find their place in our service reinforcing the holistic nature of worship, while engaging both heart and mind as we encounter God. The Book of Common Prayer, with its carefully crafted language, drawn extensively from Scripture provides a rich framework for worship. The call to embrace ritual and liturgy is not a rejection of spontaneity or contemporary expressions of worship. Instead, it is an invitation to integrate the timeless wisdom of tradition into the fabric of our faith. The gospel message, as proclaimed in both law and gospel addresses the entirety of the human experience. Quoting Psalm 119:105, "Your word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path," we see that the Word of God provides guidance for our journey. C.S. Lewis reminds us, "The language of the Book of Common Prayer is a literary and spiritual treasure. Its beauty and eloquence shape our worship, providing a profound connection to the sacred throughout the ages." Finally, Thomas Cranmer leaves us with these words, "The Book of Common Prayer's language is not a mere linguistic construct; it is a deliberate weaving of scriptural phrases, a conscious effort to immerse worshipers in the language of the Bible. In its pages, Scripture becomes the living dialogue between the Creator and His creation."

Dr. Dan Mickool Sr Warden


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As the Lenten season unfolds, Christians around the world engage in practices of reflection, repentance, and spiritual discipline. Lent, a 40-day period leading up to Easter, is traditionally marked by fasting, prayer, and acts of charity. While these practices hold profound value, it's essential to strike a balance that aligns with the doctrine of sola fide, emphasizing that salvation is a gift from God that cannot be earned through our efforts. The doctrine of sola fide, meaning "faith alone," is a cornerstone of Protestant theology. It asserts that salvation comes through faith in Jesus Christ rather than through our works or deeds. In the context of Lent, this doctrine reminds us that our Lenten practices, no matter how sincere, do not earn our salvation or standing before God.

The apostle Paul, in his letter to the Romans, beautifully captures the tension between our human struggles and God's unwavering love. In Romans 7:19-20, Paul laments, "For I do not do the good I want, but the evil I do not want is what I keep on doing. Now if I do what I do not want, it is no longer I who do it, but sin that dwells within me." This passage underscores the human condition, where even our best intentions fall short, yet God's love remains steadfast. Acknowledging our imperfections during Lent does not diminish the significance of our efforts. Instead, it redirects our focus towards reliance on God's grace. Lenten practices become opportunities for spiritual growth, humility, and a deeper understanding of our need for God.

Renowned theologian N.T. Wright offers insights into this balance, noting that Lent is not about "trying to earn God's favor" but rather "about trying to live in God's way." In embracing Lenten practices, we respond to God's love with gratitude, recognizing that our salvation is a gift received through faith. As we journey through Lent, let us engage in practices that draw us closer to God while keeping in mind the liberating truth of sola fide. Fasting, prayer, and acts of charity are not transactions to earn salvation but expressions of faith and obedience. In the words of Paul and the wisdom of N.T. Wright, let Lent be a season where we humbly acknowledge our shortcomings, embrace God's unconditional love, and grow in the grace that sustains us on this transformative journey.

Dan Mickool R.Ph, M.S, Ed.D
Sr. Warden
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